The Air Force's predecessor organizations — the Army Air Service, Army Air Corps, and Army Air Forces — ran aviation cadet programs over a period of some 48 years, from their inception during 1917 until their final termination in 1965. These programs varied greatly in size and scope. They came and went.

Still, all of the cadet programs had this much in common: They all were set up and launched when time was short, facilities limited, and combat imminent. Each of the programs produced the pilots, navigators, bombardiers, and other personnel to meet the country's needs, and did so in huge numbers, sometimes almost as if by magic.

The Air Force Academy, Reserve Officer Training Corps, and Officer Training School — all leading to or requiring a college degree — are now well-established as the paths to a military commission. Yet it is worth recalling the times when aviation cadets gave the nation huge numbers of officers, often straight out of high school.

World War I: The Birth of the Flying Cadet

Although aerial warfare had developed rapidly in Europe during the Great War of 1914–18, inherent conservatism and tight budgets of the US Army kept the American air component to a minimum during the early years of that conflagration. Not until America's entry into the war in April 1917 did President Woodrow Wilson sign into law what was then the largest Congressional appropriation in history — $640 million for aeronautics. This began a huge production effort and the creation of the training programs the vast new "flying corps" would require.

In these years, Benjamin D. Foulois, a future Chief of the Air Corps, was the Air Service's first military pilot. He went to Canada to examine the flying training systems in place there. These, especially the School of Military Aeronautics (SMA) at the University of Toronto, were used as models for the Air Service to follow.

Maj. Howard Bingham was tasked to create a similar American system, and by July 1917, eight universities had similar programs. American SMAs opened at the University of California, Cornell University, the University of Illinois, MIT, Ohio State University, the University of Texas, Princeton, and the Georgia Institute of Technology. Bingham adopted the Canadian term "flying cadets" for the pilot candidates, who had to be under 25 years of age, have two years of college, and be "athletic, honest, and reliable."

Almost 40,000 applied for the program, with 22,500 passing the very tough physical examination that became an enduring characteristic of the aviation cadet programs. American schools of military aeronautics grew to 20 weeks' duration, with emphasis on military training, aerodynamics, aircraft rigging and maintenance, engines, gunnery, and theory of combat tactics.

The flying cadets received 40 to 50 hours in aircraft such as the Curtiss JN-4 Jenny or Standard J-1. Those who survived the training — the accident rate was high — and passed their pilot qualification tests received commissions as second lieutenants. The Air Service, American Expeditionary Force, fought for seven months at the front, mustering 740 US-built aircraft. Cadet schools in the US and Europe graduated more than 10,000 students between April 1917 and November 1918.

The Lean Interwar Years

The 1918 armistice began a series of reductions in funding, personnel, and aircraft. The Air Service bottomed out from 1923 to 1926 with 880 officers and 8,000 enlisted. A small aviation cadet program was required to offset the loss of reserve officers. A new era began on June 20, 1930, when Randolph Field, Texas, opened, consolidating several training efforts.

Standards for the flying cadets were extraordinarily rigorous from the entrance exams to the flight line. An estimated 90 percent of applicants failed the physical or the entrance exams. Flight instruction was conducted in a rigorous, almost brutal manner, with the average student expected to solo in just 10 hours. The cadet was continuously monitored for any failure in technique or discipline. Washouts were frequent — either for a perceived lack of flying ability or a failure to meet military standards.

During the interwar years, funds were so limited that graduating classes were tiny. Between 1919 and 1926, some 1,494 flying cadets entered primary flying school, but only 415 graduated. Even in the 1930s, a newly graduated second lieutenant pilot would often be immediately placed in the reserves without ever seeing active duty.

World War II: The Great Expansion

With wars raging around the world, the United States finally ordered a buildup with bewildering speed. The forecasted size of the Air Corps rose to an unprecedented 24 groups in July 1939, calling for annual pilot training classes of 1,200 — six times the previous annual rate. By March 1941, the goal had grown to 84 groups, 30,000 pilots per year, and 100 training bases.

In June 1941, the Army Aviation Cadet Act created the grade of "aviation cadet" in place of "flying cadet." When the Air War Plans Division Plan No. 1 was accepted in August 1941, the annual pilot requirement was estimated at 85,236 — with complementary requirements for navigators, bombardiers, gunners, radio operators, and mechanics.

It was immediately apparent that qualifications had to be lowered to get sufficient numbers into training. Among the first restrictions to go was the requirement for two years of college. Three general classes of aviation cadets were sought: pilot and bombardier, navigator, and ground duty specialists including meteorologists and engineers.

The size of the programs grew to staggering numbers. When war began in December 1941, there were 16,733 cadets in flying training. One year later, there were 89,973, peaking at 109,000 two years later. Aviation cadet examining boards around the country gave candidates a three-part classification test, measuring judgment, mathematical skills, mechanical ability, comprehension, and leadership qualities, as well as reflexes, hand-eye coordination, and visual acuity.

Scores on the three tests were aggregated on a nine-point scale — the famous "stanine" (for "standard nine") score. Most of the volunteers wanted to be pilots, and many were dissatisfied if assigned as a navigator or bombardier.

The initial group of nine primary flight training schools increased to 56 by 1943. Contractors were paid per student; the Air Corps supplied the aircraft and a cadre of supervisory officers. Gen. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold also developed the College Training Program — from March 1943 to June 1944, nearly 100,000 men entered aviation cadets through this route.

In total, the wartime aviation cadet program produced the sheer volume needed: along with almost 200,000 pilots, the program graduated about 100,000 navigators, bombardiers, and observers. Another 2,576 graduated as enlisted pilots. The program produced leaders such as generals Jimmy Doolittle, George C. Kenney, Curtis E. LeMay, Thomas S. Power, and Elwood R. Quesada. Ten of the service's top aces of World War II were former cadets, and 28 of 38 USAAF Medals of Honor were awarded to aviation cadets.

Korea and the Cold War: The Final Surge

With America's massive postwar demobilization, aviation cadet training was closed down from shortly after the end of the war until December 1946, when it was reopened on a very limited basis to unmarried enlisted men with at least two years of service. In 1947, it was opened to civilians with at least two years of college. The new United States Air Force had an annual pilot quota of 3,000, requiring 4,800 candidates.

In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, and this meant another massive explosion of pilot training. Air Training Command needed 10,000 candidates to produce 7,200 pilots per year, based on an expected 29 percent attrition rate. Unfortunately, recruitment was low and the attrition rate was more than 50 percent. Nine contract pilot flying schools were opened between 1950 and 1953.

I entered the program myself in May 1951, after two years at the university. I started flight school in November 1951, became the first of my class to solo, and on December 19, 1952, was awarded my wings as an Air Force pilot and a commission as a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force. The discipline, the camaraderie, the sheer joy of flight — none of it has ever left me.

In 1952, a "revitalized" program was introduced with the hope of reducing the then-current 34 percent washout rate. Preflight training at Lackland AFB, Texas, was lengthened to 12 weeks. Wings and commissions were awarded after 12 months, with an additional four months of specialized training to follow. The requirement for 7,200 pilot graduates was almost met in 1953.

The End of an Era: 1957–1965

When the Korean War drew to its grudging halt with the 1953 armistice, the Cold War persisted. USAF decided to stabilize pilot training at 4,800 per year and improve training quality. Then came a permanent change in focus spurred by the shocking launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik on October 4, 1957. At that time, only 31 percent of the officers in Strategic Air Command and Tactical Air Command possessed college degrees. USAF began an immediate effort to recruit scientists and engineers for officer training schools — and after 1961, 95 percent of Air Force officers were to have degrees.

Gradually, graduates from the Air Force Academy (established 1955), ROTC, and OTS supplanted the aviation cadets. The last cadet pilot training class graduated in 1961, the last navigator class in 1965.

The final pilot aviation cadet was William F. Wesson, who graduated October 25, 1961. Wesson had entered flight training in December 1959, but broke his back and hip in an ejection. He fought a medical dismissal, and in June 1961, resumed training as the sole aviation cadet at Webb AFB, Texas — the only member of the specially designated Class 62-B. Wesson persevered and won his wings and commission. Sadly, he died in a civil aircraft accident a few years later.

On March 3, 1965, the very last aviation cadet to graduate was navigator Steven V. Harper. Foulois, who had helped start the program so many years before, presented Harper with his wings. It was a ceremony of unusual poignancy — the old general who had gone to Canada in 1917 to see how to train pilots now pinning wings on the last man to pass through the system he had helped build.

Lt. Gen. Russell C. Davis is thought to be the final aviation cadet who served on active duty. He retired in 2002 as Chief of the National Guard Bureau.

What Made the Program Work

No matter the time period, from World War I to the 1960s, all of the aviation cadet programs shared essential characteristics.

First, and certainly most important, they attracted people who wanted to serve their country, fly, and who were hungry for an upward career path. The aviation cadet programs were open to men who could not otherwise have afforded a college education — they offered wings, a commission, and a future in exchange for demonstrated aptitude, physical fitness, and iron determination.

Second, the programs were usually conducted in concert with a sector of the civilian flying population. From the contract schools of World War I and World War II to the civilian instructors who taught primary flight training, the program was never purely a military creation. It drew on the enormous well of American aviation talent that existed outside uniform.

Third, and perhaps most enduringly, the aviation cadet programs created an environment that most participants remembered with affection for the rest of their lives — despite the danger, discomfort, and relentless pressure. The bonds formed in those flying schools, in those spartan barracks, in those cramped cockpits, proved unbreakable. Aviation cadet reunions drew graduates decades later who had not seen one another since graduation day.

Former aviation cadets have often called for a return of the system, but the decline in total pilot requirements makes a return unfeasible for the foreseeable future. The memories, however, are being cultivated at the still-growing Aviation Cadet Museum in Eureka Springs, Arkansas — a fitting monument to the men who wanted wings and earned them the hard way.